關於侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利行為的馬斯垂克準則
Masstricht
Guidelines on Violations of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Maastricht,
January 22-26, 1997.
（PDF檔下載）
一、經濟、社會、文化權利的意義
1.
自從《林堡原則》於1986年獲通過以來，16億以上人口的經濟和社會狀況以驚人的速度惡化，而世界上四分之一以上的人口的狀況則以驚人的速度得到改善。過去30年中，貧富差距擴大了一倍，世界人口最貧窮的五分之一所得收入占全球收入的1.4%，而最富有的五分之一則獲得85%的全球收入。
這些差距對人們尤其是貧困者的生活的影響是顯著的，此種影響使得經濟、社會、文化權利的享受對相當一部分人口來說成為泡影。
這些差距對人們尤其是貧困者的生活的影響是顯著的，此種影響使得經濟、社會、文化權利的享受對相當一部分人口來說成為泡影。
2.
自冷戰結束以來，世界所有地區都出現了削弱國家的作用，轉而依靠市場解決人類福利問題的趨勢，這往往是為了應對國際和國內金融市場和機構造成的條件，同時也是為了吸引財富和權力超出許多國家的跨國企業的投資。經濟、社會、文化權利的落實在很大程度上依靠國家的行為這一點，已經不再被認為是理所當然的事情，雖然從國際法上講，國家仍然對保障這些權利的落實負有最終責任。盡管處理侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利行為這項任務因這些趨勢而變得更加複雜，但現在比以往任何時候都更加急需認真對待這些權利，也就是說處理政府對未能履行其在這一領域的義務的責任問題。
3.
自1986年以來，法律方面還出現了一些加強經濟、社會、文化權利的顯著進展，其中包括經濟、社會、文化權利委員會的正在出現的判例，以及1996年經修訂的《歐洲社會憲章》、《關于建立集體申訴制度的歐洲憲章附加議定書》和1988年《美洲人權公約關於經濟、社會、文化權利領域的薩爾瓦多附加議定書》等文書的通過。各國政府在七次聯合國世界首領會議（1992-1996）框架內，作出了堅決承諾，以便更為切實有效地處理經濟、社會、文化權利問題。此外，有可能通過擬議的《經濟、社會、文化權利國際公約》和《消除對婦女一切形式歧視公約》的任擇議定書，加強對侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利行為的問責制。在國內民間社會運動方面和經濟、社會、文化權利領域的區域和國際非政府組織內，出現了一些顯著動態。
4.
現在無可爭議的是，所有人權都是不可分割、相互依存、相互關聯的，而且對人的尊嚴有著同等重要性。所以，國家不僅須對侵犯公民權利和政治權利行為負責，而且也須對侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利行為負責。
5.
與公民權利和政治權利一樣，凡是締約國未能遵守經濟、社會、文化權利方面的條約義務的，這種情況依據國際法規定就屬於違反這一條約的行為。下文所列要點以《林堡原則》為基礎，主要與《經濟、社會、文化權利國際公約》（下稱“《公約》”）相關。不過，這些要點同樣有助於解釋和適用經濟、社會、文化領域的其他國際和國內法律。
二、侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利行為的含義
尊重、保護和落實的義務
6.
與公民權利和政治權利一樣，經濟、社會、文化權利使國家承擔著三種不同類型的義務，即尊重的義務、保護的義務和落實的義務。未能履行這三類義務中的任何一類義務，即構成對此種權利的侵犯。尊重的義務要求國家不要干涉經濟、社會、文化權利的享受。因此，如果國家作出任意迫遷行為，住房權就遭到侵犯。保護的義務要求國家防止協力廠商侵犯此類權利。因此，未能確保私人雇主遵守基本勞工標準，就可能構成工作權或享受公正、合理工作條件的權利遭受侵犯的情況。落實的義務要求國家採取恰當的立法、行政、預算、司法措施和其他措施，爭取充分落實此種權利。因此，國家未能向有需要者提供基本的初級衛生保健，可能構成一種侵權情況。
行為義務和結果義務
7.
尊重、保護和落實的義務都包含「行為義務」（obligation of conduct）和「結果義務」（obligation of
result）的內容。「行為義務」要求採取籌畫得當的行動，從而使某項權利得到享受。例如，就享受衛生保健的權利而言，「行為義務」可能涉及通過並執行一項降低產婦死亡率的行動計劃。「結果義務」要求國家達到某些指標，以符合某項詳細的實質性標準。例如，在享受衛生保健的權利方面，「結果義務」要求降低產婦死亡率，使之與1994年開羅人口與發展國際會議和1995年北京第四次世界婦女大會商定的水平相一致。
8.
與公民權利和政治權利一樣，國家在挑選履行各自的義務所採用的手段方面享有一定程度的斟酌權。國家實踐以及國際條約監督機構和國內法院將法律規範適用於實際案件和情況，有助於發展普遍的最低標準並形成對於經濟、社會、文化權利的範圍、性質和限度的共同理解。多數經濟、社會、文化權利的充分落實只能逐步做到——這事實上也適用於多數公民權利和政治權利，但這並不能改變國家的法律義務性質，這些義務規定：某些措施應當立即採取，另一些措施應當儘快採取。所以，國家必須證明，它正在爭取全面落實所涉權利方面取得相當大的進展。國家不能將《公約》第二條中的“逐步落實”規定作為不遵守的藉口。國家也不能因為社會、宗教和文化背景不同而減損或限制《公約》確認的權利。
最低限度核心義務
9.
如果一國未能履行經濟、社會、文化權利委員會所稱的“確保各項權利在最低水平得到落實這項最低限度核心義務，就說明存在違反《公約》的情況［……］。例如，對於境內有相當數目的個人被剝奪基本的食品、基本初級衛生保健、基本住房或者無法接受最起碼的教育的締約國，可以初步認為該締約國違反了《公約》。”不論相關國家是否具備資源或是否存在任何其他因素和困難，此種最低限度核心義務均須得到履行。
資源的具備問題
10. 在許多情況下，多數國家都能夠在不牽涉相當多資源的情況下較為容易地履行此種義務。但在其他情形中，所涉權利的充分落實須取決於足夠的資金和物質資源的提供。然而，正如《林堡原則》第25至28段所規定，以及經濟、社會、文化權利委員會正在形成的判例所確認的，資源緊缺並不能免除國家在落實經濟、社會、文化權利方面的某些最低限度義務。
國家政策
11. 如果一國通過作為或不作為，實行一種蓄意違背或忽視《公約》規定的義務或者無法達到規定的行為或結果標準的政策或做法，就說明存在侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的情況。此外，任何基於種族、膚色、性別、語言、宗教、政治見解或其他見解、國籍或社會出身、財產、階級或其他地位的歧視，意圖或實際取消或損害經濟、社會、文化權利的平等享受或行使的，都構成違反《公約》的情況。
性別歧視
12. 在《公約》確認的權利方面對婦女的歧視，按照《消除對婦女一切形式歧視公約》之下的男女平等標準加以對待。這項標準規定須消除社會、文化方面及其他結構性不利狀況造成的對婦女的一切形式的歧視，包括性別歧視。
無法遵約
13. 在確定哪些作為或不作為構成侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的情況時，有必要對一國無法履行條約義務和不願履行條約義務這兩種情況作出區分。凡表示出於其無法控制的原因無法履行義務的國家，均有責任證明此種情況屬實。例如，因發生地震而暫時關閉一個教育機構，屬於該國無法控制的情況；然而在沒有適當的新方案加以取代的情況下就取消一項社會保障計劃，則可能屬於該國不願履行其義務的情況。
由於作為而出現的侵權情況
14. 侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的情況，可以通過國家或其他沒有得到國家充分管制的的實體的直接行為而發生。此種侵權情況的例子有：
（a）正式撤銷或中止目前享有的某項經濟、社會、文化權利的繼續享有所需的立法；
（b）故意剝奪某些個人或群體的此種權利，不論是通過法律規定的差別待遇還是強制實行的差別待遇；
（c）積極支持協力廠商採取的與經濟、文化、社會權利相抵觸的措施；
（d）通過明顯與關於這些權利的原先的法律義務相抵觸的法定義務，除非這樣做旨在增進平等，改善最為脆弱群體的經濟、社會、文化權利的落實情況；
（e）採取任何蓄意倒退措施降低任何此種權利的保障程度；
（f）故意阻止或停止某項受《公約》保護的權利的逐步落實，但國家在《公約》允許的限度內行事或是由於缺乏資源或不可抗力才有此作為者除外；
（g）削減或挪用專項政府開支，致使此種權利無法得到享受，而且也沒有同時採取確保人人享有最低限度維持生計權的恰當措施。
由於不作為而出現的侵權情況
15. 侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的情況，還可由於國家的不作為或國家未能採取源自法律義務的必要措施而發生。此種侵權情況的例子有：
（a）未採取《公約》要求採取的恰當步驟；
（b）未修改和廢除顯然與《公約》規定的某項義務不一致的立法；
（c）未執行或實施旨在落實《公約》條款的立法或政策；
（d）未管制個人或群體的活動，以防其侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利；
（e）未最大限度地利用現有資源，爭取充分落實《公約》；
（f）未監測經濟、社會、文化權利的落實情況，也未制訂並適用遵約情況評估標準和指標；
（g）未迅速消除一國有義務消除的障礙，以便《公約》保障的某項權利立即得到落實；
（h）未能毫不拖延地落實《公約》要求一國立即提供的某項權利；
（i）實際有能力達到而未達到某項國際公認的最低權利落實標準；
（j）一國在與其他國家、國際組織或跨國公司締結雙邊或多邊協定之時，未考慮到在經濟、社會、文化權利領域本身應負的國際法律義務。
三、侵權責任
國家責任
16. 第二節所述的侵權情況原則上歸咎於其境內發生此種情況的國家。因而，負有責任的國家必須建立機制，糾正此種侵權情況，包括進行監督、調查、起訴，並且為受害者採取補救措施。
外國統治或占領
17. 在外國統治的情形中，經濟、社會、文化權利遭受剝奪的情況，得歸咎於對所涉領土實行實際控制的國家的行為。在殖民統治，其他形式的外國統治和軍事佔領條件下，情況就是如此。統治國或佔領國須對侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的情況承擔責任。另外，還存在著一些一致行動的國家侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的情況。
非國家實體的行為
18. 保護義務包括國家確保私營實體或個人（包括受其管轄的跨國公司）不剝奪個人的經濟、社會、文化權利的責任。對於因在管制此種非國家行為者的行為方面未能給予應有的重視而造成的經濟、社會、文化權利遭受侵犯的情況，國家須承擔責任。
國際組織的行為
19. 國家保護經濟、社會、文化權利的義務，還延伸到它們對國際組織的參與，它們在這些組織中集體行事。各國極有必要利用其影響力，確保它們參加的組織的方案和政策不造成侵權情況。國際組織，包括國際金融機構，為消除侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的情況，亟需修改其政策和慣例，以免造成經濟、社會、文化權利遭受侵犯的情況。此種組織的成員國（不論是單獨行事還是通過理事機構）以及秘書處和非政府組織，都應當鼓勵若干此種組織並在其中造成一種普遍趨勢，促其修改政策和方案，以便考慮到經濟、社會、文化權利問題，尤其是在經濟、社會、文化權利方面的決策進程受到國際機構的壓力而無力抵禦的國家執行這些政策和方案的情況下出現的問題。
四、侵權行為的受害者
個人和群體
20. 與公民權利和政治權利一樣，個人和群體都可能成為經濟、社會、文化權利遭受侵犯情況的受害者。某些群體在這方面遭受的傷害尤其嚴重，這些群體包括低收入群體、婦女、原住民和部落居民、被占領土群眾、尋求庇護者、難民和國內流離失所者、少數族群、老年人、兒童、無土地農民、身心障礙者及無家可歸者等。
刑事制裁
21. 侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利行為的受害者，不應當純粹由於其受害者地位而面臨刑事制裁，例如通過法律規定無家可歸有罪。同樣，任何人都不得由於要求享受經濟、社會、文化權利而遭受懲治。
五、對於侵權情況的補救措施和其他應對處理辦法
訴諸補救措施
22. 凡受侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利行為之害的個人或群體，都應當能夠訴諸國家和國際兩層級的有效司法補救措施或其他恰當補救措施。
適當賠償
23. 凡受侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利行為之害，都有資格獲得適當賠償，此種賠償可以採取恢復原狀、補償、康復、償還或保證不再犯等形式。
決不正式認可侵權情況
24. 國家司法機關和其他機關必須做到：它們所宣布的任何意見或裁決都不能造成相關國家的國際義務遭到違反的情況獲得正式認可的結果。至少，在對侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的情況作出任何裁決時，國家司法機構應當將國際和區域人權法的相關條款視為解釋依據。
國家人權機構
25. 國家監察專員機構和人權委員會等倡導和監測機構，應當像對待侵犯公民權利和政治權利情況那樣，積極處理侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的情況。
國際文書的國內適用
26. 國內法律秩序直接吸收或適用確認經濟、社會、文化權利的國際文書，或在這一層級可在很大程度上擴大補救措施的範圍並增強其有效性，因此在任何情形下都應予以鼓勵。
有罪不罰
27. 國家應當採取有效措施，排除任何侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的現象不受懲罰的可能性，並確保任何可能對侵犯此種權利的行為負有責任的人都能因其行為而受到懲罰。
法律專業人員的作用
28. 為了使侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利情況的受害者能夠利用切實有效的司法補救措施和其他補救措施，理事、法官、審判員、律師協會乃至整個法律界，都應當按照國際法學家委員會在1995年《班加羅爾宣言和行動計劃》中提出的建議，在其專業工作中加倍關注這種侵權情況。
特別報告員
29. 為了進一步加強侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利情況的防治、預警、監測和處理方面的國際機制，聯合國人權委員會（the UN Commission on Human Rights）應當任命一些這一領域的主題特別報告員。
新的標準
30. 為了進一步明確國家尊重、保護和落實經濟、社會、文化權利的義務的內容，國家和相關國際機構應當積極謀求就一些具體的經濟、社會、文化權利，特別是工作權、食物權、住房權和衛生保健權，通過新的標準。
任擇議定書
31. 應當通過並毫不拖延地批准規定個人和群體可在《公約》確認的權利方面提出申訴的任擇議定書。《消除對婦女一切形式歧視公約》擬議的任擇議定書，應當確保對侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利的情況給予同等程度的重視。此外，應當考慮擬訂一項《兒童權利公約》之下的任擇申訴程序。
記錄和監測
32. 所有相關行為者，包括非政府組織、國家政府和國際組織，都應當開展侵犯經濟、社會、文化權利情況的記錄和監測工作。相關國際組織必須為這一領域的國際文書的落實提供必要的支持。聯合國人權事務高級專員的任務包括促進經濟、社會、文化權利，現在有必要立即採取有效步驟，並將足夠的人力和財力撥用用於這一目的。專門機構以及其他在經濟和社會領域開展工作的國際組織，也應當適當重視屬於權利的經濟、社會、文化權利，並且在還沒有對處理侵犯這些權利的情況的努力作出貢獻的情況下，對這些努力作出貢獻。
Masstricht
Guidelines on Violations of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Maastricht,
January 22-26, 1997.
Introduction
On the occasion of the 10th anniversary
of the Limburg Principles on the Implementation of the International Covenant
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (hereinafter 'the Limburg Principles'),
a group of more than thirty experts met in Maastricht from 22-26 January 1997
at the invitation of the International Commission of Jurists (Geneva,
Switzerland), the Urban Morgan Institute on Human Rights (Cincinnati, Ohio,
USA) and the Centre for Human Rights of the Faculty of Law of Maastricht
University (the Netherlands). The objective of this meeting was to elaborate on
the Limburg Principles as regards the nature and scope of violations of
economic, social and cultural rights and appropriate responses and remedies.
The participants unanimously agreed on
the following guidelines which they understand to reflect the evolution of
international law since 1986. These guidelines are designed to be of use to all
who are concerned with understanding and determining violations of economic,
social and cultural rights and in providing remedies thereto, in particular
monitoring and adjudicating bodies at the national, regional and international
levels.
THE MAASTRICHT GUIDELINES
ON VIOLATIONS OF ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS
I The significance of economic, social
and cultural rights
1. Since the Limburg Principles were
adopted in 1986, the economic and social conditions have declined at alarming
rates for over 1.6 billion people, while they have advanced also at a dramatic
pace for more than a quarter of the world's population. The gap between rich
and poor has doubled in the last three decades, with the poorest fifth of the
world's population receiving 1.4% of the global income and the richest fifth
85%. The impact of these disparities on the lives of people - especially the
poor - is dramatic and renders the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural
rights illusory for a significant portion of humanity.
2. Since the end of the Cold War, there
has been a trend in all regions of the world to reduce the role of the state
and to rely on the market to resolve problems of human welfare, often in
response to conditions generated by international and national financial markets
and institutions and in an effort to attract investments from the multinational
enterprises whose wealth and power exceed that of many states. It is no longer
taken for granted that the realization of economic, social and cultural rights
depends significantly on action by the state, although, as a matter of
international law, the state remains ultimately responsible for guaranteeing
the realization of these rights. While the challenge of addressing violations
of economic, social and cultural rights is rendered more complicated by these
trends, it is more urgent than ever to take these rights seriously and,
therefore, to deal with the accountability of governments for failure to meet
their obligations in this area.
3. There have also been significant legal
developments enhancing economic, social and cultural rights since 1986,
including the emerging jurisprudence of the Committee on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights and the adoption of instruments, such as the revised European
Social Charter of 1996 and the Additional Protocol to the European Charter
Providing for a System of Collective Complaints, and the San Salvador Protocol
to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights of 1988. Governments have made firm commitments to address more
effectively economic, social and cultural rights within the framework of seven
UN World Summits conferences (1992-1996). Moreover, the potential exists for
improved accountability for violations of economic, social and cultural rights
through the proposed Optional Protocols to the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Significant developments within
national civil society movements and regional and international NGOs in the
field of economic, social and cultural rights have taken place.
4. It is now undisputed that all human
rights are indivisible, interdependent, interrelated and of equal importance
for human dignity. Therefore, states are as responsible for violations of
economic, social and cultural rights as they are for violations of civil and
political rights.
5. As in the case of civil and political
rights, the failure by a State Party to comply with a treaty obligation
concerning economic, social and cultural rights is, under international law, a
violation of that treaty. Building upon the Limburg Principles , the
considerations below relate primarily to the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (hereinafter "the Covenant").
They are equally relevant, however, to the interpretation and application of
other norms of international and domestic law in the field of economic, social
and cultural rights.
II The meaning of violations of economic,
social and cultural rights
Obligations to respect, protect and
fulfil
6. Like civil and political rights,
economic, social and cultural rights impose three different types of
obligations on States: the obligations to respect, protect and fulfil. Failure
to perform any one of these three obligations constitutes a violation of such
rights. The obligation to respect requires States to refrain from interfering
with the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights. Thus, the right to
housing is violated if the State engages in arbitrary forced evictions. The
obligation to protect requires States to prevent violations of such rights by
third parties. Thus, the failure to ensure that private employers comply with
basic labour standards may amount to a violation of the right to work or the
right to just and favourable conditions of work. The obligation to fulfil
requires States to take appropriate legislative, administrative, budgetary,
judicial and other measures towards the full realization of such rights. Thus,
the failure of States to provide essential primary health care to those in need
may amount to a violation.
Obligations of conduct and of result
7. The obligations to respect, protect
and fulfil each contain elements of obligation of conduct and obligation of
result. The obligation of conduct requires action reasonably calculated to
realize the enjoyment of a particular right. In the case of the right to
health, for example, the obligation of conduct could involve the adoption and
implementation of a plan of action to reduce maternal mortality. The obligation
of result requires States to achieve specific targets to satisfy a detailed
substantive standard. With respect to the right to health, for example, the
obligation of result requires the reduction of maternal mortality to levels
agreed at the 1994 Cairo International Conference on Population and Development
and the 1995 Beijing Fourth World Conference on Women.
Margin of discretion
8. As in the case of civil and political
rights, States enjoy a margin of discretion in selecting the means for
implementing their respective obligations. State practice and the application
of legal norms to concrete cases and situations by international treaty
monitoring bodies as well as by domestic courts have contributed to the
development of universal minimum standards and the common understanding of the
scope, nature and limitation of economic, social and cultural rights. The fact
that the full realization of most economic, social and cultural rights can only
be achieved progressively, which in fact also applies to most civil and
political rights, does not alter the nature of the legal obligation of States
which requires that certain steps be taken immediately and others as soon as
possible. Therefore, the burden is on the State to demonstrate that it is
making measurable progress toward the full realization of the rights in
question. The State cannot use the "progressive realization"
provisions in article 2 of the Covenant as a pretext for non-compliance. Nor
can the State justify derogations or limitations of rights recognized in the
Covenant because of different social, religious and cultural backgrounds.
Minimum core obligations
9. Violations of the Covenant occur when
a State fails to satisfy what the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights has referred to as "a minimum core obligation to ensure the
satisfaction of, at the very least, minimum essential levels of each of the
rights [...]. Thus, for example, a State party in which any significant number
of individuals is deprived of essential foodstuffs, of essential primary health
care, of basic shelter and housing, or of the most basic forms of education is,
prima facie, violating the Covenant." Such minimum core obligations apply
irrespective of the availability of resources of the country concerned or any
other factors and difficulties.
Availability of resources
10. In many cases, compliance with such
obligations may be undertaken by most States with relative ease, and without
significant resource implications. In other cases, however, full realization of
the rights may depend upon the availability of adequate financial and material
resources. Nonetheless, as established by Limburg Principles 25-28, and
confirmed by the developing jurisprudence of the Committee on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights, resource scarcity does not relieve States of certain
minimum obligations in respect of the implementation of economic, social and
cultural rights.
State policies
11. A violation of economic, social and
cultural rights occurs when a State pursues, by action or omission, a policy or
practice which deliberately contravenes or ignores obligations of the Covenant,
or fails to achieve the required standard of conduct or result. Furthermore,
any discrimination on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion,
political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other
status with the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the equal
enjoyment or exercise of economic, social and cultural rights constitutes a
violation of the Covenant.
Gender discrimination
12. Discrimination against women in
relation to the rights recognized in the Covenant, is understood in light of
the standard of equality for women under the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. That standard requires the elimination
of all forms of discrimination against women including gender discrimination
arising out of social, cultural and other structural disadvantages.
Inability to comply
13. In determining which actions or
omissions amount to a violation of an economic, social or cultural right, it is
important to distinguish the inability from the unwillingness of a State to
comply with its treaty obligations. A State claiming that it is unable to carry
out its obligation for reasons beyond its control has the burden of proving
that this is the case. A temporary closure of an educational institution due to
an earthquake, for instance, would be a circumstance beyond the control of the
State, while the elimination of a social security scheme without an adequate
replacement programme could be an example of unwillingness by the State to
fulfil its obligations.
Violations through acts of commission
14. Violations of economic, social and
cultural rights can occur through the direct action of States or other entities
insufficiently regulated by States. Examples of such violations include:
(a) The formal removal or suspension of
legislation necessary for the continued enjoyment of an economic, social and
cultural right that is currently enjoyed;
(b) The active denial of such rights to
particular individuals or groups, whether through legislated or enforced
discrimination;
(c) The active support for measures
adopted by third parties which are inconsistent with economic, social and cultural rights;
(d) The adoption of legislation or
policies which are manifestly incompatible with pre-existing legal obligations
relating to these rights, unless it is done with the purpose and effect of
increasing equality and improving the realization of economic, social and
cultural rights for the most vulnerable groups;
(e) The adoption of any deliberately
retrogressive measure that reduces the extent to which any such right is
guaranteed;
(f) The calculated obstruction of, or
halt to, the progressive realization of a right protected by the Covenant,
unless the State is acting within a limitation permitted by the Covenant or it
does so due to a lack of available resources or force majeure;
(g) The reduction or diversion of
specific public expenditure, when such reduction or diversion results in the
non-enjoyment of such rights and is not accompanied by adequate measures to
ensure minimum subsistence rights for everyone.
Violations through acts of omission
15. Violations of economic, social,
cultural rights can also occur through the omission or failure of States to
take necessary measures stemming from legal obligations. Examples of such
violations include:
(a) The failure to take appropriate
steps as required under the Covenant;
(b) The failure to reform or repeal
legislation which is manifestly inconsistent with an obligation of the
Covenant;
(c) The failure to enforce legislation
or put into effect policies designed to implement provisions of the Covenant;
(d) The failure to regulate activities
of individuals or groups so as to prevent them from violating economic, social
and cultural rights;
(e) The failure to utilize the maximum
of available resources towards the full realization of the Covenant;
(f) The failure to monitor the
realization of economic, social and cultural rights, including the development
and application of criteria and indicators for assessing compliance;
(g) The failure to remove promptly
obstacles which it is under a duty to remove to permit the immediate fulfilment
of a right guaranteed by the Covenant;
(h) The failure to implement without
delay a right which it is required by the Covenant to provide immediately;
(i) The failure to meet a generally
accepted international minimum standard of achievement, which is within its
powers to meet;
(j) The failure of a State to take into
account its international legal obligations in the field of economic, social
and cultural rights when entering into bilateral or multilateral agreements
with other States, international organizations or multinational corporations.
III Responsibility for violations
State responsibility
16. The violations referred to in
section II are in principle imputable to the State within whose jurisdiction
they occur. As a consequence, the State responsible must establish mechanisms
to correct such violations, including monitoring investigation, prosecution,
and remedies for victims.
Alien domination or occupation
17. Under circumstances of alien
domination, deprivations of economic, social and cultural rights may be
imputable to the conduct of the State exercising effective control over the
territory in question. This is true under conditions of colonialism, other
forms of alien domination and military occupation. The dominating or occupying
power bears responsibility for violations of economic, social and cultural
rights. There are also circumstances in which States acting in concert violate
economic, social and cultural rights.
Acts by non-state entities
18. The obligation to protect includes
the State's responsibility to ensure that private entities or individuals,
including transnational corporations over which they exercise jurisdiction, do
not deprive individuals of their economic, social and cultural rights. States
are responsible for violations of economic, social and cultural rights that
result from their failure to exercise due diligence in controlling the
behaviour of such non-state actors.
Acts by international organizations
19. The obligations of States to protect
economic, social and cultural rights extend also to their participation in
international organizations, where they act collectively. It is particularly
important for States to use their influence to ensure that violations do not
result from the programmes and policies of the organizations of which they are
members. It is crucial for the elimination of violations of economic, social
and cultural rights for international organizations, including international
financial institutions, to correct their policies and practices so that they do
not result in deprivation of economic, social and cultural rights. Member
States of such organizations, individually or through the governing bodies, as
well as the secretariat and nongovernmental organizations should encourage and
generalize the trend of several such organizations to revise their policies and
programmes to take into account issues of economic, social and cultural rights,
especially when these policies and programmes are implemented in countries that
lack the resources to resist the pressure brought by international institutions
on their decision-making affecting economic, social and cultural rights.
IV Victims of violations
Individuals and groups
20. As is the case with civil and
political rights, both individuals and groups can be victims of violations of
economic, social and cultural rights. Certain groups suffer disproportionate
harm in this respect such as lower-income groups, women, indigenous and tribal
peoples, occupied populations, asylum seekers, refugees and internally
displaced persons, minorities, the elderly, children, landless peasants,
persons with disabilities and the homeless.
Criminal sanctions
21. Victims of violations of economic,
social and cultural rights should not face criminal sanctions purely because of
their status as victims, for example, through laws criminalizing persons for
being homeless. Nor should anyone be penalized for claiming their economic,
social and cultural rights.
V Remedies and other responses to
violations
Access to remedies
22. Any person or group who is a victim
of a violation of an economic, social or cultural right should have access to
effective judicial or other appropriate remedies at both national and
international levels.
Adequate reparation
23. All victims of violations of
economic, social and cultural rights are entitled to adequate reparation, which
may take the form of restitution, compensation, rehabilitation and satisfaction
or guarantees of non-repetition.
No official sanctioning of violations
24. National judicial and other organs
must ensure that any pronouncements they may make do not result in the official
sanctioning of a violation of an international obligation of the State
concerned. At a minimum, national judiciaries should consider the relevant
provisions of international and regional human rights law as an interpretive
aide in formulating any decisions relating to violations of economic, social
and cultural rights.
National institutions
25. Promotional and monitoring bodies
such as national ombudsman institutions and human rights commissions, should
address violations of economic, social and cultural rights as vigorously as
they address violations of civil and political rights.
Domestic application of international
instruments
26. The direct incorporation or
application of international instruments recognizing economic, social and cultural
rights within the domestic legal order can significantly enhance the scope and
effectiveness of remedial measures and should be encouraged in all cases.
Impunity
27. States should develop effective
measures to preclude the possibility of impunity of any violation of economic,
social and cultural rights and to ensure that no person who may be responsible
for violations of such rights has immunity from liability for their actions.
Role of the legal professions
28. In order to achieve effective
judicial and other remedies for victims of violations of economic, social and
cultural rights, lawyers, judges, adjudicators, bar associations and the legal
community generally should pay far greater attention to these violations in the
exercise of their professions, as recommended by the International Commission
of Jurists in the Bangalore Declaration and Plan of Action of 1995.
Special rapporteurs
29. In order to further strengthen
international mechanisms with respect to preventing, early warning, monitoring
and redressing violations of economic, social and cultural rights, the UN
Commission on Human Rights should appoint thematic Special Rapporteurs in this
field.
New standards
30. In order to further clarify the
contents of States obligations to respect, protect and fulfil economic, social
and cultural rights, States and appropriate international bodies should
actively pursue the adoption of new standards on specific economic, social and
cultural rights, in particular the right to work, to food, to housing and to
health.
Optional protocols
31. The optional protocol providing for
individual and group complaints in relation to the rights recognized in the
Covenant should be adopted and ratified without delay. The proposed optional
protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women should ensure that equal attention is paid to violations of
economic, social and cultural rights. In addition, consideration should be
given to the drafting of an optional complaints procedure under the Convention
on the Rights of the Child.
Documenting and monitoring
32. Documenting and monitoring
violations of economic, social and cultural rights should be carried out by all
relevant actors, including NGOs, national governments and international organizations.
It is indispensable that the relevant international organizations provide the
support necessary for the implementation of international instruments in this
field. The mandate of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
includes the promotion of economic, social and cultural rights and it is
essential that effective steps be taken urgently and that adequate staff and
financial resources be devoted to this objective. Specialized agencies and
other international organizations working in the economic and social spheres
should also place appropriate emphasis upon economic, social and cultural
rights as rights and, where they do not already do so, should contribute to
efforts to respond to violations of these rights.
04-03-1997; MCHR 97-124